Lesson 4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Objectives
To understand how theory helps you assist the client
To learn about the different kinds of career development theories
To understand learning concepts (use of right/left brain)

Theory Overview

Think for a minute: What is a theory?

When the age-old question, "What am I going to be when I grow up?" is asked, how do we help our clients/students find the answer? What is the process that will help facilitate satisfying career decisions? What methods/activities are effective? How do we identify problem areas? What is career maturity? A theoretical perspective of career development provides the foundation, a starting point, to understanding the answers to these questions.

 "A theory is a system of general concepts that provides a framework for organizing and interpreting observations. Theories help us to identify the orderly relationships that exist among many and diverse events" (Newman & Newman, 1984, p. 5). "

Counseling theories are conceptual frameworks for describing or understanding complex human developmental processes. Theories describe, explain, generalize, and summarize what we do in counseling to help clients make constructive changes that lead to success and satisfaction" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-2). Theories give us a mental model from which to organize and interpret information to help determine what approach might be most appropriate.

This section focuses on theories of career development. It will emphasize the role theory plays in designing career development programs, creating assessment tools, and selecting methods to aid in the decision process. It will provide a knowledge base for the career development paraprofessional, and hopefully will stimulate a desire to go beyond, by reading and attending classes or workshops in order to build a greater understanding of the process and to expand helping skills.

Before we address future planning, we first need to identify the client's/student's current situation. That is, what is the starting point, what are his or her specific needs and what is the preferred way to approach the client/student? Demonstrating empathy helps build rapport and trust and provides a reference point with which to plan an individualized career planning strategy. The first two general theoretic concepts (discussed below) are meant to help clarify and provide insight into these issues.

Career Development Theory Overview

"We use theories to help us reduce or manage uncertainty and make more responsible decisions" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-2). Career development theories provide a set of assumptions about vocational development. Theories provide models to sort out the various factors involved in career development. They help us understand the process and offer a framework in which to organize activities that will facilitate insight and growth within the client. These theories give us a foundation for organizing information about the client to use in formulating appropriate goals. In summary, career development theory helps to:

To best help the client/student, understanding his/her career maturity, that is, where the individual is in the process and how effective he/she has been in the past, is an important start. Career development theory acts as a reference point for the facilitator: "Theoretical perspectives on career development have contributed a great deal to career-guidance programs by providing insights into developmental stages and tasks associated with transitions between stages, identification of personality types and corresponding work environments, and decision-making techniques. In addition, these theories have delineated the effects of sex-role stereotyping, provided special insights into the career development of women, ethnic minorities, and other groups, and clarified aspects of social learning theory and its relationship to career development" (Zunker, 1994, p. 12).

A number of theories have been developed to aid in our understanding of career development, that is, how we "become" whatever it is that we "become". Jepsen (1984) developed a classification system to provide an organizational basis for understanding career development theories. He divided the theories into "two broad groups: structural and developmental" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-4).

One word of caution: As you read descriptions of these theories, keep in mind they have a limiting factor in that much of the research was based on white males. Issues facing specific populations, i.e., women, minorities, etc. may be different and require different approaches. The following overview describes theories typical of this classification system. The format used comes from the Improved Career Decision-Making in a Changing World. The following is just a brief overview. Read Your Zunker text, some of the related reference material cited in your bibliography, and Feller and Walz text to enhance your theoretical foundations.

Structural Theories

a. Trait and Factor

This theory began with Parsons, who proposed that choice of a vocation depended upon (1) an accurate knowledge of yourself, (2) thorough knowledge of job specifications, and (3) the ability to make a proper match between the two. He wrote: "In the wise choice of a vocation there are three broad factors: (1) a clear understanding of yourself, your aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions, resources, limitations; (2) a thorough knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities, and prospects in different lines of work; (3) true reasoning on the relations of these two groups of facts" (Parsons, 1909/1989, p. 5). Williamson (1939) and others expanded this theory through the use of tests and other assessment tools to measure people's traits and the traits required in certain occupations.

Two major assumptions of trait and factor theory are: (1) individuals and job traits can be matched, and (2) close matches are positively correlated with job success and satisfaction. These ideas are still part of our career counseling approach today.

b. John Holland -- Vocational Personalities and Environments

This typology theory was developed to organize the voluminous data about people in different jobs and the data about different work environments, to suggest how people make careers choices and to explain how job satisfaction and vocational achievement occur. Holland suggests that "people can function and develop best and find job satisfaction in work environments that are compatible with their personalities" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-4). Holland based his theory of personality types on several assumptions. People tend to choose a career that is reflective of their personality. Because they tend to be attracted to certain jobs, the environment then reflects this personality. He classified these personality types and work environments into six types that he labeled realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (often referred to by the acronym RIASEC). He suggests that the closer the match of personality to job, the greater the satisfaction.

All types are part of each of us. However, one type is usually evidenced most strongly. We may even resemble up to three of the types. Holland developed a hexagon model that illustrates some key concepts: consistency, differentiation, identity, and congruence. A very brief overview of the six personality types, six work-related activities, and sample occupations is presented below. For an in-depth description, refer to The Self-Directed Search Professional Manual listed in the reference section.

"Holland's theory places emphasis on the accuracy of self-knowledge and career information necessary for career decision making" (Zunker, 1994, p. 49).

Although the theory appears to be applicable to both male and female workers, there is some question of gender bias in that most females frequently tend to score predominately in three personality types: artistic, social, and conventional. Holland suggests that in our sexist society, females will display a greater interest in female-dominated occupations:

TYPE

ACTIVITIES

OCCUPATIONS

Realistic

Working with things. i.e. tools and machines

Farmer

Carpenter

Mechanical Engineer

Investigative

Working with information

i.e. abstract ideas and theories

         Chemist

          Artistic

Creating things

          Painter

         Writer

          Social

Helping people

         Social Worker

         Teacher's Aide

         Enterprising

Leading others

       Sales Representative

          Entrepreneur

        Conventional

Organizing data

        Night Auditor

        Secretary

Socioeconomic Theory

"Sociologists and economists provide detailed explanations and descriptions of how one's culture, family background, social and economic conditions and other factors outside an individual's control strongly influence one's identity, values, and overall human and career development. Socioeconomic theory is also known as the "chance" or "accident" theory. This approach to understanding career development suggests that many people follow the path of least resistance in their career development by simply falling into whatever work opportunities happen to come their way" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-4, 4-5).

Developmental Theories

a. Super's Theory:

"Donald Super (1957) and other theorists of career development recognize the changes that people go through as they mature. Socioeconomic factors, mental and physical abilities, personal characteristics and the opportunities to which persons are exposed determine career patterns. People seek career satisfaction through work roles in which they can express themselves and implement and develop their self-concepts. Career maturity, a main concept in Super's theory, is manifested in the successful accomplishment of age and stage developmental tasks across the life span" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-5).

Self-concept is an underlying factor in Super's model:

"...Vocational self-concept develops through physical and mental growth, observations of work, identification with working adults, general environment, and general experiences. . . . As experiences become broader in relation to awareness of world of work, the more sophisticated vocational self-concept is formed" (Zunker, 1994, p. 30).

Super's contribution was the formalization of stages and developmental tasks over the life span. People change with time and experience, and progress through the following vocational development stages:

SUPER'S STAGES AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

STAGE

AGE

CHARACTERISTICS

Growth

Birth-14 or 15

Form self-concept; develop capacity, attitudes, interests, and needs, and form a general understanding of the world of work.

Exploratory

15-24

"Try out" through classes, work experience, hobbies.

Collect relevant information. Tentative choice and related skill development.

Establishment

25-44

Entry skill building and stabilization through work experience.

Maintenance

45-64

Continual adjustment process to improve position.

Decline

65+

Reduced output, prepare for retirement.

Note: Information about developmental tasks specific to women can be found in Zunker (1998.

The vocational developmental tasks are:

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT TASK

AGES

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Crystallization

14-18

Developing and planning a tentative vocational goal

Specification

18-21

Firming the vocational goal

Implementation

21-24

Training for and obtaining employment

Stabilization

 

24-35

 

Working and confirming career choice

 

Consolidation

35+

Advancement in career

Although Super originally presented the stages and tasks in a sequential manner, he later added that we cycle and recycle throughout our span as we adapt to changes in ourselves as well as to the trends in workplace. Understanding these ages and related stages of career development helps the facilitator select appropriate responses activities.

Super and Thompson (1979) identified six factors in vocational maturity: (1) awareness of the need to plan ahead, (2) decision-making skills, (3) knowledge and use of information resources, (4) general career information (5) general world of work information, and (6) detailed information about occupations of preference.

Super also looked at the different roles we play during our lifetimes and the relative importance we give to those roles at different times in our lives.

b. Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory

Much growth takes place as a result of learning and imitating the behavior of others. Krumboltz:

"developed a theory of career decision making and development based on our social learning, or environmental conditions and events, genetic influences and learning experiences. People choose their careers on the basis of what they have learned. Certain behaviors are modeled, rewarded and reinforced" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-5).

c. Decision-Making Theories

"Some decision-making theories hypothesize that there are critical points in our lives when choices are made that greatly influence our career development. These decision-making points are such events as educational choices, entry-level job positions, changing jobs, etc. Other decision-making theories are concerned with ongoing choices across the life span. The decisions that we make are influenced by our awareness of the choices that are available to us and our knowledge of how to evaluate them" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-5).

Others address our complex environment. For example, H.B. Gelatt says, "We make our decisions based upon what is actual and what is actual is never static" (Gelatt, 1991, p. 1).

d. Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories of career development:

"are built around how individuals process, integrate and react to information. The ways in which individuals process information are determined by their cognitive structures. These structures influence how individuals see themselves, others and the environment. Cognitive theories suggest ways to help clients build or refine a hierarchy of thinking skills and decision making skills that influence career development" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-5).

Emerging Theories and Beyond Theories

a. Zunker's Theory

Zunker asserts that the recent trend in career counseling places greater emphasis on a humanistic approach designed to expand one's awareness of life, bringing greater meaning to all aspects of life-style. "In essence, the more an individual is aware of his or her potential and experience, the greater the likelihood of self-assertion and direction" (Zunker, 1994, p. 13). There is always the need for continued research. Current theories need refining and "new theories must be developed that address the needs of specific populations, such as females, the gifted and talented, people of color, ethnic minorities, ex-offenders and persons with disabilities" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-6).

b. Bolles' Paradigm

Career theories, by their very nature, explore in depth and tend to focus on narrow issues. They play an important role in understanding human nature however, it is equally important to view the whole picture as the sum of its parts. Aside from theory, some career programs (systems) are based on philosophy. Richard Nelson Bolles' life/work planning is such a model. His holistic process evolved over the last twenty-five years and is continuously expanding. It encompasses the "total person", taking into consideration physical, intellectual, mental, emotional, and spiritual needs. In What Color Is Your Parachute?, Bolles writes about the importance of knowing your mission, that is, finding purpose in life. He addresses how various life roles fit into the bigger life/work picture. He says that we need to challenge all assumptions, paying careful attention on two levels: the human level and the spiritual level. He speaks to the fulfillment of our psychological needs as well as the importance of addressing spiritual issues. In essence, there is both the trait and factor approach and developmental schema in his process.

Maslow's Theory of Motivation and Personality

What motivates us? Maslow believed that we move in the direction of growth by seeking fulfillment of our needs. He identified a hierarchy of needs the individual strives to fulfill. (HT-1.26) These include: (1) physiological (2) safety (3) social (love and belonging) (4) ego (self-esteem) and (5) self-actualization. Maslow maintained that first we seek to satisfy the lower, primary needs (physiological and safety). As this occurs, we to move on to the higher needs (social and ego), and finally we strive toward the pinnacle, self-actualization.

As our clients/students are influenced, so are we. It is important to identify our own current status on the hierarchy, as well as that of our clients/students, and to understand our motivating factors as well as the motivations of those we are helping.

Left/Right Brain: How People Approach Learning

We all learn from both sides of our brain. The difference is in the emphasis or area that we tend to concentrate on and use most. How do we take in information? How do we learn? The left side of the brain "sees" in linear form and concentrates on expressing ideas with words as symbols. The right side is our creative side and expresses ideas with pictures. The following chart (HT-1.27) delineates some of the differences between the functions of the two sides of the brain:

LEFT SIDE

RIGHT SIDE

verbal expression

non-verbal expression

structure

spontaneity

logic

intuition

reason

emotion

words

pictures

linear

non-linear

sequential, one at a time

simultaneous, all at once

analytical

creative

This has implications in the entire communication process: for developing the helping relationship, for developing rapport and trust, and for assisting clients/students through the decision making process. There is also richness to this concept in exploring occupational areas during the career planning process (Bolles, 1981, pp. 94-97, 99-101,140-141).

Blooms Taxonomy

 

 

          In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed

          a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. This became a

          taxonomy including three overlapping domains; the cognitive, psychomotor, and

          affective.

 

          Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills:

          comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data,

          applying knowledge, choosing among alternatives in problem-solving, and evaluating

          ideas or actions. This domain on the acquisition and use of knowledge is predominant

          in the majority of courses. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from

          the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more

          complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as

          evaluation. Verb examples that represent intellectual activity on each level are listed

          here.

 

          

 

            1.  Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize,

              relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.

            2.  Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate,

              locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate,

            3.  Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret,

              operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.

            4.  Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize,

              differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.

            5.  Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop,

              formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.

            6.  Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate,

              judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.

 

          Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness,

          interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in

          interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or

          values which are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. This domain

          relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values, such as enjoying, conserving,

          respecting, and supporting. Verbs applicable to the affective domain include accepts,

          attempts, challenges, defends, disputes, joins, judges, praises, questions, shares,

          supports, and volunteers.

 

          Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by physical skills; coordination, dexterity,

          manipulation, grace, strength, speed; actions which demonstrate the fine motor skills

          such as use of precision instruments or tools, or actions which evidence gross motor

          skills such as the use of the body in dance or athletic performance. Verbs applicable to

          the psychomotor domain include bend, grasp, handle, operate, reach, relax, shorten,

          stretch, write, differentiate (by touch), express (facially), perform (skillfully).

 

Check these links:

http://www.parinc.com

http://career.missouri.edu/holland/

http://vocserve.berkeley.edu/AllInOne/MDS-1007.html

http://www.uvc.ohio-state.edu/chouse/theory.txt

http://www.stanford.edu/~jdk/

http://www.mbti.com

http://www.aenc.org/KE-LearningStyles.html

http://www.educ.utas.edu.au/~Michele.McGill/OPTION6/6messages/83.html

http://www.ntlf.com/ntlf_online/archive/0120.html

http://www.hrdq.com/1205.htm

Assignments:

Email me answers to:

Conclude this project with a separate page, a one-page report that is your personal theory of career development, from the perspective of examining and explaining your own life. Then I would like you to post and share your reactions to others' personal theories in the Class Discussion. These two pieces are worth a possible 75 points each).

The above theorist and theory projects will be DUE at the end of the first term with your final. (I suggest you use the TABLE command in your word processing program to format this so that you may expand it through this and future terms as you learn more.)

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Please e-mail Susan Roudebush if you have any comments.
Updated January 4, 2002
Copyright 2002, Susan Roudebush